Good, let’s see how well you know the animals by looking at feet only.

Animal A
A plains animal that is quite common in most of the Northwest Parks. The tracks are on average 100 mm in length. The animal has a characteristic track in that the hooves of the front feet form a rather large opening in front. Another feature is the somewhat asymmetrical shape of the spoor or track as the one hoof is very often positioned slightly more forward than the other, which is also noticeable in the photo. A final feature to note is the blunt and rounded tips of the hooves (Blue Wildebeest).

Animal B
This animal is more active at night, although often seen during the day, especially in winter. The front track is on average about 85 mm long. Characteristic features include the definite claw marks in the track, the trailing edge of the hind pad that is slanted, the front toes that are not aligned and the close proximity of the toes around the hind pad. The trailing edge of the hind pad has two lobes and the leading edge one lobe. Very often hair marks are noticeable around the tracks in soft sand (Brown Hyena).

Animal C
An animal of the plains areas with legs and feet adapted for speed. The front track is on average 92 mm long. This is an easy identifiable track because of the characteristic toe-pad or frog that is protected by a well developed hoof. These animals walk on the first digit of only the third toe, i.e. they so to speak walk on the tip of one toe, which is a feature of horses, donkeys and zebras (Burchell’s Zebra).

Animal D
A large (120 mm), spherical front foot with well developed dew claws (see in picture), that often show in soft sand as two depressions behind the track. The tracks are sometimes confused with that of eland, but they are larger and more rounded (Buffalo).

Animal E
The tracks of this animal do not resemble that of any other species and the large size (230 – 280 mm) and four rounded toes on each foot make it easy to recognise. This animal has a wide straddle (distance between feet on either side when walking), giving a characteristic ‘middelmannetjie’ to the paths of these animals (Hippo).

False Marula trees do not occur in the north western parts of South Africa. The tree that people so often refer to as a False Marula in these parts is actually the Live-long that belongs to the same group or genus as the False Marula. Both trees belong to the genus Lannea, which refers to the dense, woolly hairs that cover the young parts of the plants.

Both the Live-long (Lannea discolor) and the False Marula (Lannea schweinfurthii) belong to the same family as the Marula (Sclerocarya birrea), namely the Mango Family (Anacardiaceae). These three trees are characterized by the following common features:

• Medium to large deciduous trees in bushveld
• Leaves with a watery latex
• Berry-like fruits called stone fruits or drupes
• The strong resinous smell of the crushed leaves
• Male and female parts on different trees, a condition referred to as dioecious.
• Compound leaves, once divided with a terminal leaflet, which means that the ordinary leave is subdivided into smaller leaflets of unequal number.

A live-long can be distinguished from a Marula in that the leaflets of the live-long have very short stalks and the leaflets are clearly discoloured being dark green above and silvery grey below. The leaflets of the Marula have much longer stalks and are of an even greyish-green colour on both sides. The leaflets of the Live-long are also much larger than those of the Marula. There are 3-5 pairs of leaflet per leaf in Live-long and
3-7 pairs in Marula. The bark of a Live-long is dark grey and does not flake off in round or square depressions like that of the Marula. The fruits of the Live-long are purple compared to the yellow colour of the Marula fruits when ripe. The fruits of the Marula are also significantly larger; 30 – 35 mm in diameter compared to the 10 x 7 mm fruits of the Live-long.

The actual False Marula (Lannea schweinfurthii) is restricted to the warmer northern and north-eastern parts of the country. The bark flakes of in much longer strips than in the Leaves of the Live-long Marula leaves Marula although the stems of both trees have a mottled appearance because of the flaking off of the bark. The leaves differ from that of the Marula in that it also has leaflets with very short stalks. The leaflets are also larger with a darker shiny green appearance. There are fewer leaflets per leaf (1-3-pairs) than in either Live-long or Marula trees. The fruits of the False Marula are oval shaped, dark red when ripe and borne in long clusters.

All three tree species are typical bushveld trees that provide ambiance and atmosphere to the Bushveld Savanna. In autumn the hillsides of Pilanesberg are painted in warm yellow-orange colours just before the leaves of the Live-longs are falling.

Just as trees and other plants have evolved various means to protect themselves against browsers (leaf feeders), so have grasses developed methods to reduce grazing and protect themselves against grazers (grass feeders). Although grasses and grazers have evolved and coexisted for millions of years, their relationship is not one of compliance and acceptance, but rather of tolerance and adaptation. Grasses are constantly evolving new strategies to reduce over-utilization by grazers while grazers develop new approaches to deal with grass ingenuity.

Grasses are considered palatable when they taste nice, have a high protein value, produce a lot of leaves and are digestible. By changing these factors through structural and chemical adaptations, grasses can reduce their palatability and become less acceptable to grazers.

Structurally grasses defend themselves by becoming very fibrous, especially towards the end of the growth season, which make them less digestible. Most grasses contain microscopic silica crystals within the leaves, which effectively wear down the teeth of grazers. It’s like chewing bubblegum containing minute sand grains. In order to overcome this problem grazers have all developed high crowned teeth. The presence of hairs on the grass stem and leaves is another effective deterrent against insect grazers such as locust. To these “goggas” those hairs on a grass plant are what the thorns of a thorn tree are like to mammal browsers.

Chemical defense relies on the production of aromatic oils and other bad tasting chemicals that grazers, especially mammal grazers, find unacceptable. Good examples are Pinhole grass, Stinking grass and Turpentine grass.

Other important factors to consider are the structure and composition of the grassveld. Just as we like variation in what we eat, so do animals and for that matter grazers. Monocultures (large grass stands of a single grass species) are not favoured by animals and they tend to avoid it even if the grass species is palatable. Animals are also very vulnerable to predation in tall grasslands and they spend as little time as possible in these areas.

So, next time you drive through those grass plains in one of our beautiful nature reserves not seeing any game, have a good look at the grasses while considering all the factors mentioned above. It just might give you an idea where else to go looking for those elusive Tsessebe, Red Hartebeest or Blue Wildebeest.

So, what are termites then? For a start, we know that they are insects. Some people refer to them as “flying ants” or “rysmiere” and Eugenè Marais, famous author and naturalist, even referred to them as “white ants”. Fact of the matter is that they are not even remotely related to ants and are evolutionary speaking, closer to cockroaches. Structurally they differ from ants in not having a “waist” between the abdomen (hind body) and thorax (breast). They also have straight antennae (feelers) and not the knee-like bend antennae of ants. Unlike ants, termites have a life-cycle which does not include a pupa stage. This is described as incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolic development) compared to the complete metamorphosis (holometabolic development) of ants. Just like ants though, termites are social insects that cannot exist and function as individuals.

Well, so much for the technical detail. Termites are considered a very ancient and primitive group of insects, which existed in their present form for more than a hundred million years. They are all herbivorous, eating wood or other dead or green plant material. Except for a few, most termite species do not possess the enzymes to digest the cellulose in plant cell walls. In order to obtain the energy stored in these chemical compounds they have to rely on other micro-organisms to do it for them. For this purpose some like the harvester termites (Hodotermes spp.) lodge microscopic unicellular organisms called flagellates, in their intestines. Others (Macrotermes and Odontotermes spp.) make use of a fungus that they cultivate to perform this function outside their bodies. It is these fungus-growing termites that are responsible for the so familiar structures that are erroneously called “ant-hills”, but which are in actual fact termitariums or termite mounds.

In the natural world a termitarium is without a doubt one of the most remarkable wonders of nature and in structure and function exceeds any of the so-called technologically advanced engineering endeavors of the human race. They have been referred to as “castles of clay” and indeed that is what they are with king and queen, workers and soldiers, all performing a specific function in maintaining this encapsulated society. The most intriguing thing is that all happens in complete darkness. A termitarium is designed in such a way as to create just the right micro-climate
and conditions for the comfort and well-being of the termites and for the fungal gardens that they grow and maintain. The fungus serves not only as a food source, but also as an air conditioning unit that regulates the temperature and humidity inside the termitarium. It generates heat as it grows and absorbs surplus moisture, which is released back into the air when the humidity inside the nest falls below a certain level. Termites can tunnel as deep as fifty meters to find the water that is necessary for maintaining the atmosphere inside their nests.

With all their excavations and construction activities the termites continuously bring nutrients up from deeper down so that the soil in and around the termitariums becomes quite fertile. This is eminent from the variety of tree species that grow on these old termitariums. Termitariums are often covered with blue buffalo grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) which is a good indicator of fertile soils. In places like Pilanesberg for example, the fungus growing termites prefer areas underlain by “ou klip” The mound of a fungus-growing termite (ferricrete), which forms an impermeable layer just under the soil surface where water accumulates in depressions making it more accessible to the termites for collection and transportation back into their nests.

Over many years the continuous activity of termites collecting coarser soil particles, minerals and water from deeper down and transporting it to the surface, a process known as “bioturbation”, has effectively contributed in forming a clay rich layer over the ferricrete. This process contributes in dismantling the hard impervious layer of “ou klip” under the termite mound, forming a so-called “soft spot” with deeper soils allowing trees and shrubs to thrive on these areas. This has created the so familiar tree patches associated with the termite mounds that can be seen all over the Bushveld landscape.

Termites and their termitariums play a significant role in the ecology of natural ecosystems. Their main contribution to the ecology of this beautiful reserve is as a source of food. Many insectivorous birds feast on the termites that also form the main diet of the large, black Matabele ants and mammals such as aardvark and aardwolf. In the dry season the sweeter grass that grows on these termitariums are eagerly sought after by grazing animals in need of nutritious forage. Red hartebeests and tsessebe often use the termite mounds as lookout posts and central points in their territories. It is home to a myriad other organisms, ranging from invertebrates to reptiles and mammals. Water monitor lizards lay their eggs in the termitariums where they become safely sealed off and develop at an almost constant temperature and humidity. The ideal incubator! Predators, especially cheetah, often climb up on them as a vantage point to spot potential prey. Elephants and rhinos use the termite mounds as rubbing posts, sometimes completely demolishing them, and in so doing return the concentrated nutrients to the soil.

Although these little insects are generally not visible, their mounds certainly advertise their presence. So, next time you drive past one of these wonders of nature, consider the fact that our natural world probably would have had a completely different ecology and landscape if it weren’t for these little insects.

“I know we are only halfway through the course but I want to thank you now. You have no idea how much you have enriched my life or how exciting the learning process has been for me. Your professionalism and friendliness has been unfailing. Your choices of lecturers for the most part has been outstanding and your organization superb” – Joan

“Oom Sakkie, baie dankie vir die geduld en hulp gedurende die Kursus. Dit was wonderlik net om daai paar dae in oom se teenwoordigheid te wees,oom se kennis het my net weer gemotiveer en laat besef om nooit op te hou leer nie en te streef om meer en meer te leer van die Natuur. Baie dankie” – Ulrich

“Ons weet julle is ‘n professionele besigheid, maar ons wil net dankie sê vir die wyse waarop julle elke student indiwiduele aandag gee. Dit was vir Robbie ‘n voorreg om Sakkie se kennis en entoesiasme van die natuur te deel en dan nog op die koop toe ‘n kursusma soos jy Miemie te kon hê” – Robert.

“I can’t believe that the year is almost over, with only one lecture to go. Just wanted to say that it has been the most awesome, happy year for me, and most of this is due to the course. Thank you” – Pat.

“Vir my beteken dit terugkyk op een van die beste jare van my lewe (miskien selfs die heel beste).  My liefde vir en belangstelling in die veld het ek van my pa (nou nie meer by ons nie), maar die geleentheid om oor soveel aspekte van die natuur te leer en van naby te ervaar het ek aan julle te danke. Sakkie, jou verstommende kennis, entoesiasme en mensekennis, en Miemie jou vermoe om die organisasie op ‘n kalm, vriendelike, ordelike en liefdevolle manier te doen is tog seker ‘n unieke kombinasie in ons land.  Ek dink ons was meer bevoorreg as wat ons eers kan besef” – Hettie.

“Congratulations on yet another successful year.    I take my hat off to you for all that you put into this course and into building your organisation.  I really take my hat off to you. With love and appreciation” – Mary

“Hierdie kursus verryk my lewe op ‘n manier wat ek nie verwag het nie. Ek leer so baie veral deur die werkstukke wat ons doen en ook die kwaliteit van die lesings.Baie dankie dat ek deel kan wees van die kursus” -  Sintichia

“This year has meant more to me than I can ever express. I learnt about me, I learnt about our incredible natural world and I’ve learnt that the world is full of incredible like minded, caring people.  My highest praise of course goes to Sakkie and Miemie, who between them make each student feel like they are so very important. Sakkie has an eye for each student’s potential and encourages each one to reach for their goal. Miemie, our stalwart, keeps everything  flowing smoothly, her gentle spirit influences every event and they are truly a superb team! I  cannot thank you both enough for one of the best years of my life” – Robbie

“I do have some comments and observations to make, but must qualify it all with a reminder also to myself that I’m not an education-type individual, and have no idea of the complexities of putting together and presenting training material – other than that it must be very difficult to get the right mix. Against that background, the BTA course overall is excellent. As I go along I start recognizing the sequence of putting together the jigsaw puzzle pieces which build a holistic picture and broad understanding of what’s what on a bushveld walk. It’s a bit like discovering a second layer of chocolates in the box when all the years it seemed there was only the top level to see. Lekker! Hell, maybe there’s even a third layer” – Mark

“The information you have supplied for the course has surpassed my expectations and as a result I certainly would recommend BTA to anyone. I have loved every minute of this outstanding course, meeting new friends, etc and looking so forward to my classes each week. What better way could I have learnt to be on my own again….it not only is educating to me but certainly is giving me my confidence and passion for life back ( this tortoise is now peeking her head out of her shell…..Thank you, thank you, thank you ..” – Cally

“Yesterday’s guided walk was a fantastic experience for me, and I made the point to myself then that on my return to work, to say “Thank You” to you and your team today for the wonderful experience you’ve all given me!” – Peter

“There wasn’t sufficient space on the note to say it, but I really want to thank you both sincerely for all you have done this year. I have enjoyed the course enormously and have had my eyes opened to so much - particularly during the practical sessions, during which I found your obvious passion for the natural world, and your incredible knowledge, truly inspirational. What began (for me) as a desire just to know a bit more about the wild areas we enjoy visiting, has changed my view of the world, and developed into a passion of my own. I will always remember the outstanding quality of the BTA course content and teaching, and your enthusiasm for imparting your knowledge to us ‘drolpere’” – Anne

Net-winged beetles or flat beetles (Lycus spp.) are all poisonous and therefore display aposematic colouration in combinations of orange and black patterns, which is mimicked by certain long-horn beetles and moths. The longitudinal ridges on the wings are characteristic of the net-winged beetles. They are slow flying insects that are very common on flower inflorescences and flower heads during the summer months. The larvae are predatory on other insects and look very similar to the larvae of the glow worms or fire flies. Eggs are laid under bark and in rotten wood, where the eggs will hatch and the larvae start feeding on other insects.

Leaf beetles are the fourth largest beetle family.

The most famous of these beetles are the arrow-poison beetles or flea beetles, the larvae of which are used by the san or Bushmen to poison their arrows. The most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the larva and pupae of beetles of the genus Diamphidia and Polyclada. Diamphidia is about 12 mm long, yellowish with small black dots. The antennae are unusually long for such a small insect. The young stages are yellow-brown and hairy with black heads. Older stages turn grey with black lines or series of black dots across the body. The head is black. There are no hairs on older larvae.

The larvae of Polyclada live on the leaves of Marula trees and those of Diamphidia on the leaves of commiphoras (Cork woods), especially the poison-grub commiphora (Commiphora africana).

The poison is applied to the arrow either by squeezing the contents of the larva directly onto the gut-binding between the shaft and the arrow head, by mixing it with plant saps to act as an adhesive, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. Interestingly the toxin, from these beetle larvae and pupae, called diamphotoxin, is non-toxic to mammals by ingestion and is only toxic after it enters the blood stream. Diamphotoxin is chemically unique, causing severe and extensive haemolysis, which is the destruction of the red blood cells with a subsequent release of hemoglobin the protein in the blood that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body

Adaptations for feeding are a conspicuous feature of avian evolution. These adaptations include modes of locomotion birds use while feeding, structure of the bill and the digestive system. Birds sit, walk, hop, fly and dive in search of food.

A bird’s bill is its key adaptation for feeding. The size, shape and strength of the bill affect a bird’s diet. Although seemingly specialised to one particular food or way of feeding, avian bills are multipurpose organs. Most birds feed on a variety of foods and may change diets with the season.
Three major features make up the general morphology of birds’ bills. The upper half of the bill, or maxilla, attaches to the brain case by a thin, flexible sheet of bone called the nasofrontal hinge. The lower jaw, or mandible, articulates with the quadrate (dentary bone), a large complex bone at the mandible’s posterior end. The large jaw muscles, which enable a bird to bite, attach to the posterior surfaces of the mandible.

Covering both jaws is a horny sheath of keratin, or ramphotheca, which may have sharp cutting edges, numerous tooth-like serrations or well-developed notches. The avian bill is not rigid as birds can flex or bend the upper half of the bill. It is furthermore equipped with many fine nerve endings that serve to feel and taste the food. In addition the bill is also used for protection, for display purposes and communication.

The oral cavity houses taste buds, pressure receptors and a tongue that is often specialised. The tongue aids in the gathering and swallowing of food. Most birds’ tongues have rear-directed papillae that aid in swallowing.

ADAPTATION IN BIRDS FEEDING ON ANIMAL FOOD

Fish

The following methods are applied in catching fish:

• Underwater pursuit and grasping or harpooning with the bill, e.g. penguins, darters and cormorants
• Diving or fishing from above the water’s surface and then caught with the bill or feet, e.g. wading birds, kingfishers and gannets
• Standing and waiting for a fish to appear and then stabbing it with the bill, e.g. wading birds
• Disturbing fish from the bottom with the feet and then stabbing or grabbing with the bill, e.g. wading birds
• Scooping fish with a gular pouch, e.g. pelicans

Meat

Meat is acquired by active predation or by scavenging. Active predators include the majority of birds of the order Falconiformis, most owls and members of the passerine families Laniidae (shrikes). Adaptation to a predatory lifestyle include the following:

• Large eyes with good binocular vision
• Large feet with long, sharp claws for killing and grasping prey
• A strong, hooked bill for tearing prey apart
• Excellent powers of flight

Only the vultures and the Marabou Stork have specialised in scavenging to the almost total exclusion of other foraging methods. The “griffon” vultures are characterised by the possession of a deeply troughed tongue with serrated edges and a stronger supporting tongue-bone than those of the other vultures.

Feeding on insects include foraging from surfaces such as the ground, branches or leaves, crevices behind bark or between flower parts and foraging in the air. Adaptations in plovers, for example, include long legs for running after insects and well developed nasal glands to remove salt from the body fluids of their insect prey, which enables them to be independent of drinking water.

Adaptations to aerial foraging include the small bill with very wide gape, the long wings and the streamline body, often ending in a forked tail.

The salivary secretions of woodpeckers are sticky, which helps them extract insects from wood crevices and ants from nests.

The Giant Kingfisher and Water Dikkop are crab specialists, both having large, strong bills. Sunbirds are basically the only group that feeds to a significant extend on spiders.

ADAPTATION IN BIRDS FEEDING ON PLANT FOOD

 Fruits

The most highly frugivorous of African birds are the louries, parrots, mousebirds, hornbills, barbets, orioles, bulbuls, starlings and white-eyes.

Frugivorous birds usually have robust bills for cutting through the tough skins of many kinds of fruits or for plucking them and swallowing them whole. Fruits favoured by frugivores are mostly black, red or orange in order of decreasing preference. Birds tend to avoid green fruits with few exceptions, e.g. the Yellowfronted Tinker Barbet that feeds on the green fruit of the mistletoe(Tapinanthus and Viscum).

Seeds

Seeds are processed in the following two ways among birds:

•  Birds that husk the seed and swallow the kernel only. These birds have conical-shaped bills that are mechanically strong.
• Their bills are also equipped with a cutting edge in both upper and lower jaws by which the husk of the seed is removed.
• Birds that swallow the seed and husk together and process both in the alimentary canal.

Nectar

Feeding adaptations among nectar-feeding birds include a tubular tongue for nectar extraction, a distensible oesophageal pouch (crop) for nectar storage and juxtaposition of the entrance to the digestive area (proventriculus) and the opening into the intestine. This anatomical arrangement allows nectar to bypass the stomach, while diverting insect food into the stomach for longer digestion. The gizzards of nectar-feeding birds are thin-walled structures. The tongues of sunbirds a brush-like tip with which nectar is licked up.

FILTER FEEDERS

Straining fine particles out of water has been evolved by at least three living groups of birds, namely the ducks, flamingos and prions. The adaptations to bill structure should be studied in each of these groups.

WOODPECKING

Tits, barbets and woodpeckers are among the most specialised birds that use woodpecking as a means of extracting food from wood. In these birds and especially the woodpeckers the following adaptations are noticeable:

• The rhamphotheca is especially hard and chisel-tipped and grows continuously.
• The broad base to the bill and hinge between the nasal and frontal bones of the skull.
• The broad base to the bill and hinge between the nasal and frontal bones of the skull;
• As well as the spongy bone between the skull and bill absorb the shock of striking the wood.
• The tail feathers are stiff-shafted to act as a prop against tree trunks.
• The zygodactyl toes allow for a better grip when negotiating vertical stems and branches
• The tongue has long hyoidal extensions that curl around and lie on top of the skull.
• This makes the tongue highly extensible, allowing it to probe deep into wood crevices

Here in South Africa some people refer to the culprits as Christmas beetles, which is a bit of a misnomer as they are not beetles but bugs belonging to the same group of insects as aphids, leafhoppers and spittlebugs. They are also around during most part of summer. In Australia the various species of cicadas have very descriptive and colourful names, for example Black Prince, Green Grocer and Double Drummer to mention but a few. Worldwide there are between two thousand and three thousand different species.

Most of a cicada’s lifecycle is spend underground where they live as nymphs feeding on the juices from tree roots by inserting their sucking mouthparts into the roots. Here they may spend years and go through several instars (developmental stages) and moults before finally emerging to go through a final moult outside on the trunk of a tree.

The carapace splits open lengthwise along the dorsal (top) side of the nymph to allow the new cicada into the outside world. It takes a while for the carapace and wings to harden before the cicada is ready for its adult life lasting but a few weeks. After mating, the female cuts slits into the bark of a twig and deposits her eggs there. When the eggs hatch after about six weeks, the newborn nymphs drop to the ground, where they burrow and start another cycle. Most cicadas go through a life cycle that lasts from two to five years, although some American species have a life cycle of seventeen years.

The intriguing question is how do these small insects produce that deafening sound and for what purpose? Well, the interesting thing about these noisy bugs is that only the males are calling. The reason? Well, to attract females of course. Each species has its own distinctive call and only attracts females of its own kind even though rather similar species may co-exist. The apparatus used by cicadas for producing the sound is quite complex and differ completely from insects such as crickets and grasshoppers in which sound is produced by means of stridulation, when different body parts are rubbed together.

The sex of a cicada is easily determined by looking at the underside of the insect. In females there is a pointed egg-laying organ (ovipositor) at the tip of the abdomen, which is absent in males. Instead, males have two semicircular plates, called opercula, which are situated at the base of the abdomen at its junction with the thorax and just behind the last pair of legs. The opercula cover the sound-producing and hearing organs. By lifting one of the opercula the tympanic membrane, used for hearing, can be seen as a whitish plate at the back of the cavity. The sound-producing organs, which are called tymbals, are situated at the side of the cavity behind the opercula. The hearing organs or tympanums are present in females but they lack the opercula and sound-producing organs.

The tymbals are ribbed membranes, each having strong muscles attached to it. Contracting and relaxing these internal tymbal muscles causes the tymbals to rapidly vibrate and produce pulses of sound. In some cicada species, a pulse of sound is produced as each rib buckles. The sound so produced is further amplified by the almost hollow abdomen and enlarged chambers derived from the tracheae (tubes conducting air to the internal tissues of an insect), which serves as a resonance chamber. The male can change the volume of the sound by lifting or lowering the opercula. This also gives the sound a ventriloquial quality making it difficult for human listeners to pinpoint the origin of the sound.

The most fascinating thing is that a certain group of African cicadas are among a very few insects that are capable of thermoregulating endothermically, in other words, they regulate their body temperature by means of their own internal cellular metabolism. Ectothermic organisms on the other hand, have to rely on external sources to regulate their body temperature. There are many advantages to endothermy, the most important being the ability of the males to control the quality of their calls as this is important to attract females. Endothermic males can much better regulate the temperature of their singing muscles, thus making their call characteristics much less variable and allow them to compete more effectively for mates.

Game Ranger

A game ranger is a person whose concern is mainly with the conservation management of a specific area and usually does not deal with the general public in an educational role, although he or she could contribute towards a public general awareness of conservation. The prime responsibility of a game ranger is therefore to ensure the well being and safety of the protected area under his or her management. This is a multifaceted task which includes among other responsibilities the day to day monitoring of the health and well-being of wildlife, game capture and introductions, burning programs and local community relations, liaison and involvement.

Tour Guide

A tour guide takes people around a town, museum, or other tourist venue or specific areas of the entire country with a focus on cultural and historical aspects. It is a person who guides and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area, for which he or she possesses an area-specific qualification usually issued and/or recognised by the appropriate authority. Tourist Guides are able to help travellers understand the culture of the region visited and the way of life of its inhabitants. They have a particular role on the one hand to promote the cultural and natural heritage whilst on the other hand to help ensure its sustainability by making visitors aware of its importance and vulnerability.

Nature Guide

The nature guide forms a link between the natural environment and his or her guests with the emphasis on interpretation and education. He or she provides a learning experience which encompasses all aspects of wildlife and nature. Sharing factual knowledge and meaningful interpretation of the natural environment in an ethical way, is the main objective of nature guiding, which requires a high standard of training and quality service with the safety and enjoyment of people as priority.

Just like humans, elephants produce vocal sounds when air expelled from the lungs is passed over the vocal cords of the larynx or voice box.

In elephants the larynx is about 8 cm long. The vocal cords vibrate when the air moves over them producing a particular sound. In elephants various frequencies of sound is produced by shortening or lengthening the vocal cords. Elephants also possess a resonating chamber consisting of the trunk, mouth, tongue, larynx, nasal cavities and pharyngeal pouch that enables the animal to modify and amplify the sound produced by the vocal cords. How the elephant holds its head, and flaps its ears presumably also affect the musculature around the larynx, which in turn modifies a call to achieve the desired sound.

mixture of higher frequency sounds can be produced depending on whether the elephant’s mouth is open or closed, whether the head is held high or low, the ears flapping slowly or rapidly, the position of the trunk and the speed and duration of air moving through the trunk.

Those low and deep rumbles that are often heard and referred to as stomach-rumbles are not the result of an upset stomach or knot in the digestive track, but very low frequency sounds that the elephants produce as part of their communication repertoire. Several physical-anatomical adaptations allow elephants to produce these low frequency rumbles.

First of all the large body of the elephant allows for a bigger resonating chamber and longer and looser vocal chords that contribute significantly to the production of these sounds. The bigger the resonating chamber and longer the vocal chords the deeper the sound.

The larger resonating chamber and longer vocal chords in elephants are attributed to the following features:

• The trunk in an adult male may add as much as three meters to the length of the resonating chamber.
• The loose arrangement of the musculature and cartilages that supports the tongue and larynx allows for greater movement and flexibility of the larynx.
• The loose arrangement of the tongue and larynx houses a structure unique to elephants called the pharyngeal (around the pharynx) pouch, situated at the base of the tongue, which further contributes to the production of low frequency calls.

The Pharyngeal Pouch

As mentioned before the pharyngeal pouch situated at the base of the tongue, is unique to elephants. Apart from the role it plays in producing low frequency sounds, it also provides elephants with an emergency source of water as elephants can store several liters of water in the pharyngeal pouch. On hot days or when tracking long distances over dry areas elephants are sometimes seen inserting their trunks down their throats and withdrawing water from their “stomachs”. In actual fact they withdraw water from the pharyngeal pouch. This water is then either drank or sprayed over the body as a cooling mechanism.

These low frequency rumbles of which the lowest components are below the lower limit of human hearing, travels further than higher frequency sound. It is therefore thought that the more powerful of these calls serve to communicate over long distances and thereby staying in touch with other elephants and family groups. The harmonic structure of these low frequency calls also allows elephants to determine the distance of the calling elephant.

At night an elephant is able to detect the call of another elephant almost 10 km away. During the day this distance drops dramatically to about 2 km because of the warmer surrounding air and wind.

Elephants are able to detect these low frequency sounds for several reasons. The large skull allows for longer ear canals, wider tympanic membranes and spacious middle ears. The amount of sound energy collected by the tympanic membrane (ear drum) increases with increasing membrane area, which in essence implies that the larger the tympanic membrane the better an animal is able to hear at low frequencies.